Pollens of Past Gardens of Judah bloom

An ancient royal garden has come back into bloom in a way, as scientists have reconstructed what it would've looked like some 2,500 years ago in the kingdom of the biblical Judah.

Their reconstruction, which relied on analyses of excavated pollen, reveals a paradise of exotic plants.

The luxurious garden had been discovered at Ramat Rahel, an archaeological site located high above the modern city of Jerusalem, about midway between the Old City of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. This site was inhabited since the last century of the Kingdom of Judah (seventh century B.C.) until the early Muslim reign in Palestine (10th century), a period that saw many wars and exchanges of power, with the garden evolving under each civilization.

Since excavators discovered the garden, they could only imagine its leafy, flowery inhabitants. That is until now.

The garden relied on an advanced irrigation system, which collected rainwater and distributed it using artsy water installations, including pools, underground channels, tunnels and gutters.

These water installations ended up being the key to the team's new discovery; the researchers found grains of pollen that likely got trapped in plaster when the installations were renovated and the plaster still wet. The result was preserved pollen grains.

In samples dating back to the Persian period (between the fifth and sixth centuries B.C.), the team found grains from local fruit trees, ornamentals and imported trees from distant lands.

"This is a very unique pollen assemblage," study researcher Dafna Langgut, a pollen expert at Tel Aviv University, said in a statement.

For instance, they found evidence of willow and poplar trees, which would have required irrigation to survive in the garden. They also found pollen associated with ornamentals, such as myrtle and water lilies; native fruit trees, including grape vine, common fig and olive; and imported citron, Persian walnut, cedar of Lebanon and birch trees. The researchers think the ruling Persian authorities likely imported these exotics from remote parts of the empire to flaunt their power.

Co2 The Culprit Marine ecosystems threatened

If carbon dioxide emissions don't begin to decline soon, the complex fabric of marine ecosystems will begin fraying and eventually unravel completely, two new studies conclude.

The diversity of ocean species thins and any survivors' health declines as the pH of ocean water falls in response to rising carbon dioxide levels, scientists from England and Florida reported February 18 at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. What's more, affected species aren't restricted to those with shells and calcified support structures features particularly vulnerable to erosion by corrosive seawater.

Jason Hall-Spencer of the University of Plymouth, England, and his colleagues have been collecting data from marine sites off Italy, Baja California and Papua New Guinea, where high concentrations of carbon dioxide percolate out of the seabed from volcanic activity below. Directly above these CO2 seeps, pH plummets to at least 7.8, a value that is expected to occur widely by 2100 and which is substantially lower than the normal level for the area, 8.1. These sites offer a preview of what may happen to seafloor ecosystems as CO2 levels continue to rise, causing ocean water pH to drop.

Compared with nearby normal-pH sites, species richness in low-pH zones was diminished by 30 percent, Hall-Spencer reported. “Coral and some algae are gone. And the sea urchins are gone,” he said. Fish may be present, but unlike in areas with a normal pH, they won't deposit their eggs there.

Although seagrasses appear to survive just fine in the low-pH seawater, close inspection showed that fish had nibbled the fronds, Hall-Spencer found. He identified one likely explanation: At low pH, these grasses no longer produced the phenolic defense compounds that typically deter munching by grazing animals.

Did You Know? What does lightning do to the atmosphere?

There are lightning strikes somewhere on earth 100 times a second. And every time lightning strikes, it generates Ozone gas. This strengthens the Ozone Layer in the upper atmosphere you know, the one with the big hole that heightens our need for sunscreen.

A cloud to ground bolt of lightning carries between 100 million and 1 billion volts. It can reach 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit 3-4 times hotter than the surface of the sun!

Water Worlds The wall of globes

Where in the world is all the water vapor? It may be hard to tell at first glance, but this wall of globes represents a simulation of monthly averaged distribution of total column water vapor on the planet. Such simulations are important, because understanding the distribution of water vapor on Earth is critical for understanding our planet's climate.

Going Natural Nepal's biogas success

Nepal is looking to scale up its flagship household biogas programme, which has made forays into other developing countries in Asia and Africa.

Initiated in 1992 with support from the Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV), Nepal has installed over 240,000 household biogas plants with a thermal energy capacity of 444 megawatts and greenhouse gas savings of 367,409 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per year.

Biogas plants break down biodegradable matter to produce mainly methane. In Nepal, they are fed with cow dung and human waste and the output burned in cooking stoves, while the solid residue is used as farm fertiliser.

Nepal country director for SNV, Rem Neefjes, attributes the success of the programme to simple, uniform biogas technology and coordination among government, private sector and microfinance institutions.

Nepal's model has been replicated in various Asian countries, including Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Bhutan, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Indonesia, according to Khagendra Nath Khanal, assistant director at the Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP-Nepal).

"We are the second largest power generator in Nepal after hydropower," said Khanal.

Several African countries are benefiting from Nepal's experience, said Paul Hassing, senior advisor of the African initiative, Biogas for Better Life. "In terms of the level of marketing of the biogas sector, it is fair to say that Nepal is still some 10 years ahead of developments in certain African countries," Hassing said.

ET Hope Possibility of life on Europa

Scientists are strongly speculating (backed by the 1995 Galileo Spacecraft mission's findings) that Europa, the smallest of the four Galilean satellites and the 6th closest moon of the planet Jupiter house a liquid ocean underneath its solid icy crust. That cosmic mission discovered that underneath the icy crust of Europa, lies salty ocean which is kept warm by tidally generated heat and volcanic activities. It is believed that the biggest of Europa's craters are surrounded by concentric rings and these rings are likely to be filled with ice. And there is a possibility that this outer crust of ice is approximately 100km thick where only the top 10km are frozen solid which ushers the great possibility of the existence of a global ocean in a liquid form and at least 62 miles deep beneath these icy crust. And chances are, wherever there is water, there will be life. But what kind of life it would be in Europa that is a matter of great research. But some ideas are already there.

Since Europa's ocean lies quite a few miles beneath the icy crust, it is perceived that the way oxygen influences our existence here on Earth, is perhaps not the case with Europa due to liquid water's separation from atmospheric oxygen by several miles of chilling ice. But it has been proved that without oxygen, life could conceivably exist at hot springs deep in the ocean floor. Life in Europa could exist in its under-ice ocean, perhaps in a similar fashion to that of Earth's deep-ocean hydrothermal vents or the Antarctic Lake Vostok, the largest of more that 140 sub-glacial lakes found under the surface of Antarctica. Up until 1970's, it was believed that Sun was absolutely essential for the existence of life. But in 1977, during a deep-sea exploration in the Galapagos Rift, scientists discovered flocks of giant tube worms, clams, crustaceans, mussels, and other various creatures gathered around undersea volcanic features known as black smokers and these aquatic creatures were found to have thrived despite having no access to sunlight, depending on an entirely independent food chain! Instead of usual plants, it was found that these unique species depended on a form of bacterium that itself gains its energy from oxidization of reactive chemicals, such as hydrogen o hydrogen sulfide, that bubbled up from the Earth's interior. And all of these provide a great deal of idea regarding how life could survive in Europa's ocean. If life can thrive here on Earth, without the aid of sunlight and in harshest of environments, then why not in Europa?

According to experts, life on Europa could exist clustered around hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, or below the ocean floor, where endoliths (an organism, e.g. lichen, alga or amoeba that lives inside rock, coral, animal shells or in the pores between mineral grains of a rock) are known to inhabit on Earth. Alternatively, it could exist clinging to the lower surface of the moon's ice layer, much like algae and bacteria in Earth's Polar Regions, or float freely in Europa's ocean. On the other hand, if Europa's ocean were too cold, biological processes similar to those known here on Earth, perhaps won't take place. Volcanic activity provides some of the heat necessary to keep the water on Europa from freezing and provides key dissolved chemicals required by the living organisms. If the water is too salty, only extreme halophiles (organisms that thrive in environments with very high concentrations of salt) could survive in its environment.

Researchers used their model to help explain the stresses that act on Earth's tectonic plates. Those stresses result in earthquakes not only at the boundaries between tectonic plates, where most earthquakes occur, but also in the plate interiors, where the forces are less understood.

Stony Brook University researchers have devised a numerical model to help explain the linkage between earthquakes and the powerful forces that cause them, according to a research paper scheduled to be published in the journal Science on Feb. 17. Their findings hold implications for long-term forecasting of earthquakes

William E. Holt, Ph.D., a professor in the Geosciences Department at Stony Brook University, and Attreyee Ghosh, Ph.D., a post doctoral associate, used their model to help explain the stresses that act on Earth's tectonic plates. Those stresses result in earthquakes not only at the boundaries between tectonic plates, where most earthquakes occur, but also in the plate interiors, where the forces are less understood, according to their paper, "Plate Motions and Stresses from Global Dynamic Models."

"If you take into account the effects of topography and all density variations within the plates -- the Earth's crust varies in thickness depending on where you are -- if you take all that into account, together with the mantle convection system, you can do a good job explaining what is going on at the surface," said Dr. Holt.

Their research focused on the system of plates that float on Earth's fluid-like mantle, which acts as a convection system on geologic time scales, carrying them and the continents that rest upon them. These plates bump and grind past one another, diverge from one another, or collide or sink (subduct) along the plate boundary zones of the world. Collisions between the continents have produced spectacular mountain ranges and powerful earthquakes. But the constant stress to which the plates are subjected also results in earthquakes within the interior of those plates.

"Predicting plate motions correctly, along with stresses within the plates, has been a challenge for global dynamic models," the researchers wrote. "Accurate predictions of these is vitally important for understanding the forces responsible for the movement of plates, mountain building, rifting of continents, and strain accumulation released in earthquakes."

Data for their global computer model came from Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements, which track the movements of Earth's crust within the deforming plate boundary zones; measurements on the orientation of Earth's stress field gleaned from earthquake faults; and a network of global seismometers that provided a picture of Earth's interior density variations. They compared output from their model with these measurements from Earth's surface.

"These observations -- GPS, faults -- allow one to test the completeness of the model," Dr. Holt said.

Drs. Ghosh and Holt found that plate tectonics is an integrated system, driven by density variations found between the surface of Earth all the way to Earth's core-mantle boundary. A surprising find was the variation in influence between relatively shallow features (topography and crustal thickness variations) and deeper large-scale mantle flow patterns that assist and, in some places, resist plate motions. Ghosh and Holt also found that it is the large-scale mantle flow patterns, set up by the long history of sinking plates, that are important for influencing the stresses within, and motions of, the plates.

Topography also has a major influence on the plate tectonic system, the researchers found. That result suggests a powerful feedback between the forces that make the topography and the 'push-back' on the system exerted by the topography, they explained.

While their model cannot accurately predict when and where earthquakes will occur in the short-term, "it can help at better understanding or forecasting earthquakes over longer time spans," Dr. Holt said. "Nobody can yet predict, but ultimately given a better understanding of the forces within the system, one can develop better forecast models."

Source: Science Daily

'Our publishers need to have editors'

Anisul Hoque is a versatile author -- with his repertoire covering novels, poetry, plays and even screenplay. Hoque, who is an assistant editor at the daily Prothom Alo, has also amassed a large fan following through his 'Godyo-Cartoon' articles.

This year, the writer has been honoured with the prestigious Bangla Academy Award, conferred on him for his contributions to literature. He received several other awards throughout his illustrious writing career, including the City Bank Anondo Alo Award, Khalekdad Chowdhury Award, Khulna Writers Club Award, Poet Mozammel Hoque Foundation Award, Sukanto Award and the Euro Children's Literature Award. He also received the Bachsas Award and Tenashinas Award as a playwright. The Daily Star caught up with the author.

How many books by you have been published at this year's Ekushey Book Fair?

Hoque: Three novels and a compilation of small stories have been published. Among the novels, Prothoma Prokash published “Jara Bhor Enechhilo”; Somoy Prokash published “Na Manushi Jomin” and “Bhalobasha Dot Com” was published by Pearl Publications. Kakoli Prokashoni meanwhile published the short stories, titled “Oshomapto Chumboner 19 Bochhor Por”. Besides, a selection of my regular newspaper articles under the columns 'Godyo-Cartoon' and 'Oronye Rodon' have been made into books. The titles are “Priyo Pathhok Ektu Hashun” and “Ei Bhalobashar Kono Maney Hoy Na”.

What is your reaction to winning the Bangla Academy Award?

Hoque: I'd say the award should've come earlier. But I can take consolation by looking at the other 9 recipients of the award who are all much senior to me, especially Abdullah Abu Sayeed Sir; Khalikuzzaman Ilias and my teacher from BUET, Ali Azgar Sir. I consider Abdullah Abu Sayeed to be my mentor. When I first started writing, I asked Sayeed Sir why he doesn't get awards. When my books started coming out, I thought to myself “who am I to get an award, when Sayeed Sir hasn't received one yet!”. Then he received the Magsaysay Award for literature -- which we consider to be the Nobel Prize of Asia. But still Bangla Academy did not award him. So I started hoping that maybe Sayeed Sir and I would get the award the same year. It is a dream fulfilled. Having the chance to share the same stage with him while receiving the award is consolation enough.

What do you think of this year's book fair?

Hoque: I've been coming to the fair since 1984-85. Compared to those times, Dhaka city and its population both have grown, but the space inside the Bangla Academy has shrunk. The fair used to stretch near the pond inside; but buildings have been erected at the spot. It is amazing how the authorities are being able to maintain the overwhelming pressure of the ever-growing literate crowd in the capital. I believe a good stall arrangement has given the fair a better vibe.

Do you feel that the fair space should be extended?

Hoque: I feel that such a small venue cannot accommodate a book fair in a city of 20 million. However, Somoy Prokashoni proprietor Farid Ahmed disagrees. I think the fair should be moved to a larger venue -- with better access and car parking facilities. It should be a book fair of international standards. The Bangla Academy premises lack these necessities. We should rise above our sentiments. An alternative can be holding the fair at separate venues simultaneously throughout the month of February. At least two venues -- for North and South Dhaka -- should host the fair.

What is your opinion on the abundance of publishers?

Hoque: I don't know why there are so many publishers in the country. The focus should be on the quality of books. Our publishers also need to have editors, which all international publishing houses have. The publishers in Bangladesh have achieved solvency, now they need to be professional.

Living gets tough Inflation dwarfs wage growth

All's not well when it comes to cost of living and wages in the country.

According to the data of Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), due to high inflation the real wages of the working class people have suddenly marked a sharp drop last fiscal year.

As the inflation has exceeded 10 percent this year, the common people should expect more economic misery than any other recent years.

And it is not just the working class that is being affected by the rising inflation and low wage growth. Middle and upper middle class people are also feeling the bite now.

"My salary increased by just five percent last year while my cost of living, I believe, increased by two to three folds," said Kalabagan resident MS Rahman, an employee in a private company.

Rahman said he now works extra to cover the rising living cost.

From essential food items to transport cost, and from personal care products to house rent -- prices of everything have marked sharp rise in the last two years.

The wage growth rate in manufacturing and construction sector fell by 6 percentage point and in the agriculture sector by 10 percentage point.

Around 90 percent of the total labour force is employed in manufacturing, construction, agriculture, and fisheries sectors, according to BBS.

The scenario of wage growth was quite opposite between fiscal years 2008 and 2010. According to the BBS data, general wages of workers in major sectors like manufacturing and agriculture grew at an excellent rate of more than 11 percent back then.

With inflation hitting 8.8 percent, the wage growth rate dropped down to a frustrating 3.95 percent last fiscal year. A Bangladesh Bank official said if the inflation is adjusted with the wage growth rate the real income has decreased in the recent times.

The data for the current fiscal year might be available after June this year.

The recently released Bangladesh Bank annual report (2010-11) observes, "Purchasing power of the poor people has been slower due to lower wage rates against high inflation."

This finding contradicts with the BBS chief's recent remark that while inflation has been on the rise, the peoples' purchasing power has also gone up.

World Bank senior economist, Zahid Hussain, explained the decline in real wages.

"This happens when the labour supply growth exceeds labour demand growth. The labour supply has grown steadily at 3.6 percent per annum during 2006 and 2010. Domestic employment growth during the same period was 3.5 percent per annum. Nominal wages grew at double digit rates in all sectors and far exceeded the inflation rates during fiscal years 2008 to 2010."

He wrote in an email, "This was a period of booming manpower exports which tightened labour supply in our internal labour markets leading to increase in real wages. Manpower exports slowed considerably in FY11 relative to the annual average number exported during FY08-10. Consequently, supply side pressure in the domestic labour market increased, thus lowering real wages."

The wage growth rate fell while general inflation grew by double digits over the last 11 months. In the last two months both food and non-food inflation were in the range of two digits.

Apple testing smaller screen tablet: WSJ

Apple is testing a tablet computer with a smaller screen than the hot-selling iPad, The Wall Street Journal reported on Tuesday.

The newspaper, quoting unidentified people familiar with the situation, said the California gadget-maker was working with component suppliers in Asia to test the tablet computer with a smaller display.

The Journal quoted officials at Apple suppliers as saying the company has shown them screen designs for a device with an eight-inch (20.3-centimeter) display.

The iPad has a 9.7-inch (24.6-cm) screen. Apple has sold more than 55 million iPads since launching the device in April 2010.

The Journal said Apple was working with Taiwan's AU Optronics Co. and South Korea's LG Display Co. to supply the test panels.

The newspaper cautioned that Apple frequently works with suppliers to test new designs and "could opt not to proceed with the device."

Apple reportedly plans to unveil a new version of the iPad in the first week of March. According to the Journal, the "iPad 3" will have a higher resolution screen than the iPad 2 but will be the same size.

Both Amazon and Samsung offer smaller and lower-priced tablets than the iPad.

Apple's late co-founder Steve Jobs once famously dismissed tablets smaller than the iPad saying they were "tweeners" that were "too big to compete with a smartphone and too small to compete with an iPad."

He suggested in October 2010 that makers of seven-inch (17.8-cm) screens "include sandpaper so users can sand down their fingers" to be able to tap onscreen keys.